The Matter Myth: Chapter 10 Analysis

            The final chapter of this book, The Living Universe, is a chapter that questions the definition of life and discusses the cause of life on Earth. In addition, the existence of life on other planets in our solar system and other systems is discussed.

            Many ancient civilizations in the past viewed the Universe as a living organism. They believed that the Universe had a predetermined goal that every action in existence contributed to. In our age, a similar concept still exists. Some people believe in Gaia, the belief that the Earth is a living organism. These beliefs allow us to ponder about the definition of life.

            Although it is easy for us to define plants and animals as living creatures, it is difficult when we describe things such as viruses. Many criteria must be met for something to be defined as living. Viruses fulfill many of these criteria, but are not capable of reproducing by itself. A virus is capable of invading living cells and taking control of the organelles. This allows the virus to reproduce, but it requires the assistance of an outside source. Therefore, the definition of life can be very vague sometimes.

(above) This is a picture displaying the process of a virus invading a cell to reproduce.

            The Miller-Urey experiment is an experiment that artificially reproduces the Earth’s environment in the early stages of life by trapping a chemical mixture in a container and running electric sparks through it. The result is the creation of amino acids, the building blocks of proteins. Proteins are an essential part of life. In an infinitely vast Universe, it is inevitable that the conditions for life similar to Earth’s must exist somewhere else. Certainly, Earth is not the only planet with intelligent life forms.

Bibliography

Davies, Paul, and John Gribbin. The Matter Myth. New York: Orion Productions, 1992. Print

Images:

http://leavingbio.net/VIRUSES%20WEBPAGE_files/image006.gif

The Matter Myth: Chapter 9 Analysis

            The ninth chapter, titled The Infinite Future, teaches readers about the creation of different types of stars and other massive objects in space. Gravity is assumed to be the cause of the creation of dwarf stars, neutron stars, and black holes.

            Gravity is an infinitely long ranged force that acts based not only on the mass of an object, but also its size. As an object becomes more massive, its gravitational pull increases. In addition, as an object with the same mass decreases in size, its gravitational pulls increases. This is because the gravitational force of an object follows an inverse square law based on its mass and radius. It is useful to imagine that as a massive object contracts due to its own gravitation, its gravitational force increases.

            Stars like the Sun are capable of keeping their size and not shrinking because of the nuclear fusion inside of it. The conversion of light elements such as hydrogen into heavier elements such as helium produces enough of a pressure to allow the Sun to keep its size. Inevitably, fusion will eventually burn out and lose to the force of gravity. As a result, the Sun will eventually shrink and become a white dwarf star. If the Sun was larger, they force of its gravity may force it to shrink even further, into a neutron star. The density of a neutron star is so immense that its electrons and protons form neutrons.

(above) This is a depiction of a white dwarf star the size of Earth. Although both objects possess the same size, the white dwarf star possesses a much stronger gravitational force due to its density.

            Black holes are mysterious things that possess such an immense amount of gravity that an object must accelerate past the speed the light to escape from the force of its gravitation. Black holes are the result of a massive star continually collapsing due to the force of its own gravity.

Bibliography

Davies, Paul, and John Gribbin. The Matter Myth. New York: Orion Productions, 1992. Print

Images:

http://www.astronomy.ohio-state.edu/~pogge/Ast162/Unit3/Images/WhiteDwarf.gif

The Matter Myth: Chapter 8 Analysis

            In chapter 8, the authors finally reveal their definition of “the matter myth”. The chapter also focuses on the cosmic network, the unification of nature’s four fundamental forces: weak nuclear force, strong nuclear force, electromagnetism, and gravitation.

            The matter myth is the belief that the Universe is a collection of particles that interact with each other in predetermined ways due to the nature of a Universe similar to clockwork. This myth is fiction because of the development of recent theories that discredit Newton’s mechanistic view of the Universe.

            The cosmic network can be described as the unification of nature’s four fundamental forces. Although three out of four of the forces (weak nuclear force/weak interaction, strong nuclear force/strong interaction, and electromagnetism) can be unified, gravitational force is has not yet been added to the mixture.

(above) This is an image of examples of the four fundamental forces of nature.

            The electromagnetic force is states that every charged particle has a field around it that repels or attracts other charged particles. Since like charges repel, when two positive particles are places in each other’s electromagnetic field they move away from each other.

(above) These electromagnetic field lines show test charges (positive) being attracted towards the negative particle and repelling away from the positive particle.

            The weak nuclear force is involved with holding together the form of an atom. It is also responsible of radioactive decay. The strong nuclear force is responsible for holding together quarks, resulting in the formation of protons and neutrons.

           

Bibliography

Davies, Paul, and John Gribbin. The Matter Myth. New York: Orion Productions, 1992. Print

Images:

http://teledataschool.com/bc/pictures/electric_field.gif

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The Matter Myth: Chapter 7 Analysis

            Quantum Weirdness, the seventh chapter of The Matter Myth, is a segment of the book dedicated to explaining the quantum physics. This chapter opens up with an explanation of Neils Bohr’s model of the configuration of electrons around the nucleus of an atom. Following this is an explanation of the famous Schrödinger's cat experiment. The many-universes theory is also discussed.

            Neils Bohr’s model of the configuration of electrons around the nucleus in an atom portrays the electrons in fixed orbits around the nucleus. This implies that electrons orbit based on quantized levels of energy, called photons. Neils Bohr proposed that electrons are restricted to these orbits, and can only jump between these orbits by absorbing or releasing photons. This theory could explain why electrons do not spiral into the center of the nucleus due to electromagnetic attraction. Quantum physics states that these orbits do not define the position of electrons, but act as an average location for them. It is impossible to define where an electron is exactly at any given time.

            Schrödinger's cat is a thought experiment involving a cat trapped inside a box with an apparatus that allows a fifty percent chance of the cat’s death. Two possibilities are apparent: the cat is either dead or alive. Therefore, the cat may be regarded as both dead and alive until a person opens the box and observes the result of the experiment.

    

(above) This is an image portraying the experiment. The cat is drawn as both dead and alive because it exists in both states until one observes the experiment’s result.

The many-universes theory proposes that each time an action of chance occurs, the Universe splits into multiple Universes. Each one of these new Universes corresponds to one result of the action of chance. For example, during the Schrödinger's cat experiment, the Universe may have divided into two new Universes. In one world, the cat is alive. In the other world, the cat is dead.

Bibliography

Davies, Paul, and John Gribbin. The Matter Myth. New York: Orion Productions, 1992. Print

Images:

http://d1jqu7g1y74ds1.cloudfront.net/wp-content/uploads/2010/02/Schrodingers_cat.png

The Matter Myth: Chapter 6 Analysis

            The sixth chapter of The Matter Myth is titled “…And the Last”. This chapter thoroughly examines the concept of the Universe collapsing into itself due to the universal force of gravity. The build-up of uneven matter distribution since the creation of the Universe is also discussed. Lastly, ripples of spacetime are described.

            Gravity is a force that acts on all objects. Certainly, the Universe as a whole is not an exception to this. The Universe has avoided collapsing into itself so far because of its initial expansion rate. However, it has been proven that the Universe is expanding slower over time. This questions whether or not the expansion will eventually halt and then become a contraction. Scientists believe that gravity will one day cause the end of the Universe. This end depicts the Universe ending like a reversed version of the big bang. Instead of everything coming out of a single point, it will all become a singularity.

(above) This is a depiction of the big crunch theory. The Universe is depicted to follow a cycle of expansion and contraction.

            At the beginning of the Universe, matter may have been distributed very smoothly. Regardless, small irregularities would have amplified over billions of years due to the nature of gravity. When any area has more matter, its gravitation is increased. This allows this concentrated area of matter to continually attract more matter. Therefore, over time, dense areas of matter would cause an uneven distribution of matter in the Universe.

            Massive amounts of matter are described to be capable of warping spacetime around it. For example, the Sun is capable of this act. When the Sun moves, the spacetime warp around it also moves. When two massive objects collide, their spacetime warps disrupt each other and release gravitational wave ripples into their surroundings.

Bibliography

Davies, Paul, and John Gribbin. The Matter Myth. New York: Orion Productions, 1992. Print

Images:

http://static.ddmcdn.com/gif/big-crunch-theory-big-bounce.jpg

The Matter Myth: Chapter 5 Analysis

           The fifth chapter of this book discusses a wide variety of topics revolving around the first moments of the Universe’s creation and the matter and antimatter resulting from its creation. The concepts of plank time, quantum theory indeterminism, Einstein’s famous equation, virtual particles, and antimatter and explained. Plank time is the fundamental unit of time that can’t be further divided into smaller intervals. It describes time to have begun when the Universe was 10^-43s old. Because time did not begin after plank time, our calculations in physics do not apply to the singularity.

            The quantum theory is based around indeterminism. This theory implies that the Universe is not like clockwork with determined cause and effects, but with indistinct effects. It states that events can occur without causes, matter can follow random paths, and forces do not always produce predetermined actions. Einstein’s theory of relativity states that energy is equivalent to matter. The quantum theory paired with Einstein’s theory of relativity allows energy or matter to appear out of nothing as long as it rapidly disappears. Matter that is formed in this way is defined as virtual particles. Virtual particles do not exist for a long period of time because they do not have enough energy.

            After Einstein’s time, scientists discovered that his equation of E=mc² was flawed and incomplete. The true equation was E²=m²c⁴. By square rooting this equation, two possible answers are given, one positive and one negative. The existence of negative energy and antimatter was later confirmed. It is believed that each particle has a reflective antiparticle.

(above) This is a comparison between hydrogen and its antimatter counterpart. Note that they are very similar in structure, although the anti-hydrogen atom is composed of protons and electrons negative energy states.

Bibliography

Davies, Paul, and John Gribbin. The Matter Myth. New York: Orion Productions, 1992. Print

Images:

http://scienceblogs.com/startswithabang/files/2010/11/idrogeno-anti.gif

The Matter Myth: Chapter 4 Analysis

            The focus of the fourth chapter of this book is the start and expansion of the massive Universe. The origin of the big bang theory is explained. The second law of thermodynamics is used to describe the concept of the Universe’s “heat death”. The process allowing stars to generate energy is explained. Lastly, black holes are briefly mentioned.

            Cosmology is the study of the origin and end of the Universe. In the 1920s, Edwin Hubble discovered that the Universe was expanding. The combination of Hubble’s discovery and Einstein’s theory of relativity proved that the Universe had a beginning, because it was expanding. This beginning is labelled as the big bang.

            The possibility of the Universe dying is a topic widely discussed. One theory states that the Universe will end in a “heat death” when all useful energy has been depleted and transferred into forms that are not useful. This theory is caused by the second law of thermodynamics, stating that the entropy (or disorder) of an isolated system will always increase.

(above) When the gas only occupies the left side, the system has relatively low entropy. As the system’s entropy increases, the gas expands. Can you imagine what would happen if energy was dispersed over an infinitely large area? Would there be an useful energy for life?

            Stars generate energy by converting light elements such as hydrogen into heavier elements such as helium. This process creates an immense amount of entropy and releases energy into the space. Space is not overheated by the stars because it is constantly expanding. Therefore, space is not a closed system.

            A black hole is defined as the final state of clumping due to gravity. It is created by a massive object collapsing into itself.

(above) A portrayal of a black hole. Objects that fall into a black hole can never escape due to the immense force.

Bibliography

Davies, Paul, and John Gribbin. The Matter Myth. New York: Orion Productions, 1992. Print

Images:

http://scienceblogs.com/startswithabang/files/2012/05/Black_Hole_Milkyway.jpeg

http://casey.brown.edu/research/crp/Edu/Documents/00_Chem201/images/Energy_is_constant__Entropy_is.gif

The Matter Myth: Chapter 3 Analysis

           In the third chapter, the authors cover the topics of space and frames of reference. Newton’s concept of inertia is explained along with his invention of the concept of absolute space. An opposing theory is also briefly discussed. In the second half of the chapter, Einstein’s explanation of space-time is mentioned.

            Inertia is defined as the natural resistance of every object to a change in its motion. For example, when you are standing in a train that suddenly accelerates you will experience a slight movement backwards. This is because your body has a natural tendency to remain in the position it was previously at. Newton used the concept of an absolute space that reacted to every force and produced inertia. This space can be imagined as a substance enveloping all objects.

(above) Inertia explains why it is difficult to push a massive object. The object’s natural tendency to resist a change in its current state of motion (rest) prevents it from moving.

            In opposition to Newton’s method of thinking, Bishop George Berkeley stated that the idea of absolute space is meaningless. He explained that a sphere in a void will have no motion, because there is not a frame of reference in which motion can be observed. When two spheres are attached by a string, motion can be observed between the two spheres relative to each other.  

            Einstein’s theory created a bond between time and space, forming space-time. In this theory, objects can be observed from many different angles and positions in time. Because of the success of this theory in explaining many physical systems, it is an accepted view of the physical world.        

Bibliography

Davies, Paul, and John Gribbin. The Matter Myth. New York: Orion Productions, 1992. Print

Images:

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The Matter Myth: Chapter 2 Analysis

            The second chapter of this book is titled “The Liberation of Matter”. As the title suggests, this chapter discusses the freeing of matter from the deterministic Newtonian world view. The authors go into detail about the chaos theory and explain the difference between chaotic and non-chaotic systems. The laws of physics and laws of chance are tied together by the chaos theory. Heisenburg’s uncertainty principle is also briefly mentioned in this chapter.

            Following the formulation of the laws of mechanics, scientists worldwide accepted the view of the Universe as a gigantic mechanism. In one case, Pierre Laplace, a nineteenth century scientist, believed that at any instant in time, Newton’s laws could explain the position of everything with extreme precision. Along with this belief came the belief that true chance processes do not actually exist. For example, the flipping of a coin is only viewed as a chance process because we are not capable of viewing every factor affecting the result of the flip.

(above) Is the flipping of a coin a true chance process or can the result be determined by calculating every factor on the coin?

A non-chaotic system is system in which a lack of input precision translates into a similar lack of output precision. For example, if your initial information about the position of an object falling is incorrect, your final velocity calculations will carry a similar small error. A chaotic system is a system that amplifies input errors. In contrast to a non-chaotic system, a chaotic system would make a lack of input precision noticeable.

Although Newton’s laws allow very precise measurements, they will not provide perfect results. This can be explained by a number line. Fractions are not capable of labeling every point on a number line, but irrational numbers are. Since irrational numbers have an infinite amount of repeating numbers, they cause an unavoidable lack of perfect precision. In a chaotic system, this input error would amplify the output error. It would be impossible to mathematically calculate processes our Universe to infinite precision. This concept may be used to back up Heisenburg’s uncertainty principle, which states that everything we can observe or measure is vulnerable to random fluctuations.

(above) A number line to help visualize how the act of defining every point on the line is impossible.

Bibliography

Davies, Paul, and John Gribbin. The Matter Myth. New York: Orion Productions, 1992. Print

Images:

http://www.venturaes.com/curriculum/HOM3/Graphics/FS12_N/FS_Frac_Decimals3.jpeg

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The Matter Myth: Chapter 1 Analysis

            The Matter Myth, by Paul Davies and John Gribbin, is a book that discusses recent developments in physics that have contributed to the revolution of modern science. An important topic discussed in the first chapter of this book is the change in humanity’s way of thinking and developing scientific theories. The paradigm shift from mechanism and materialism to post-mechanism and the death of materialism described. Lastly, the chapter discusses causes of errors in theories, such as taking the face value of a system as reality.

            Mechanism is a paradigm inspired by Isaac Newton’s theory that the Universe is a giant purposeless machine. The Universe can be pictured as mathematically precise clockwork. This way of thinking was popularized by the application of Newton’s laws during the Industrial Revolution. For the first time in history, engineers were allowed to create things that did not need to rely on trial and error. Along with this advancement came a passion for obtaining large quantities of matter. Wealth took the form of land, gold, or other resources. Newton’s view of the world explains humans as automatons that are essentially “cogs” in a giant machine called the Universe. Sadly, this view caused demoralization and depersonalization, because it states that free will is essentially and illusion.

(above) Although wealth is still measured in materials such as gold, the world is changing. Information is becoming more valuable as post-mechanism is gaining more support.

            The post-mechanistic view of the Universe states that not everything is predetermined. Because it is difficult to explain concepts such as morality and love, post-mechanism is a helpful way to view the world; it allows room for free will. As theories such as the chaos theory are developed, the world becomes less materialistic. For example, Australia is developing a new type of city called the Multi-Function Polis (MFP). The MFP is designed to have health, research, and recreations facilities along with a high-tech communications network. The purpose of this type of city is to allow Australia to skip the Industrial Revolution and enter an economic order based on information.

            Lastly, the causes of errors in theories are briefly discussed in this chapter. Taking the face value of a system as reality is on source of error that is briefly discussed. For example, biologists once believed that organisms were infused with a life force because embryos were capable of recovering from deliberate mutilation. This theory is called vitalism. Vitalism was completely discredited when the genetic code was cracked, demonstrating that life is based on chemical reactions similar to those in lifeless systems.

(above) The long necks of giraffes caused a belief that acquired traits were passed on through generations. This theory was later proven wrong with the cracking of the genetic code.

Bibliography

Davies, Paul, and John Gribbin. The Matter Myth. New York: Orion Productions, 1992. Print

Images:

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